Process Analysis in Composition

Process Analysis in Composition In composition, process analysis is a method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer explains step by step how something is done or how to do something. Process analysis writing can take one of two forms:   Information about how something works (informative)  An explanation of how to do something (directive). An informative process analysis is usually written in the third-person point of view; a  directive process analysis is usually written in the second person. In both forms, the steps are typically organized in chronological orderthat is, the order in which the steps are carried out. Examples and Observations Planning a good process analysis requires the writer to include all the essential steps. Be sure you have all the tools or ingredients needed. Arrange the steps in the correct sequence. Like all good writing, a process essay requires a thesis to tell the reader the significance of the process. The writer can tell the reader how to do something, but also should inform the reader about the usefulness or importance of the endeavor.(G. H. Muller and H. S. Wiener, The Short Prose Reader. McGraw-Hill, 2006)Reviewing Your ProcessWhen you revise your process writing, think about the people who will be reading it. Ask yourself these questions:(Robert Funk, et al., The Simon and Schuster Short Prose Reader, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, 2000)Have I chosen the best starting point? Think about how much your audience already knows before you decide where to begin describing the process. Dont assume your readers have background knowledge that they may not have.Have I provided enough definitions of terms?   Have I been specific enough in the details? Example: How to Remove Chewing Gum From Hair(Joshua Piven et al., The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook: Parenting. Chronicle Books, 2003)Prepare an ice sack.Place several cubes of ice in a plastic bag or thin cloth. Seal or hold it closed.Apply an ice pack to hair.Move the affected hair away from the scalp and press the ice against the gum for 15 to 30 minutes or until the gum freezes solid. Use a rubber glove or a dry washcloth to hold the ice compress if your hand becomes chilled.Crack the frozen gum into pieces.With one hand, hold the stuck section of the hair between the gum clot and the scalp, and break the frozen gum into small pieces.Remove the gum.Gently pull the frozen gum pieces from the hair using your other hand. If the warmth of your hand begins to melt the gum, refreeze and repeat until all the gum has been removed from the hair.Example: How to Mark a BookThere are all kinds of devices for marking a book intelligently and fruitfully. Heres the way I do it:(Mortimer Adler, How to Mark a Book. Saturday Review, July 6, 1940)Underlining: of major points, of important or forceful statements.Vertical lines at the margin: to emphasize a statement already underlined.Star, asterisk, or another doo-dad at the margin: to be used sparingly, to emphasize the ten or twenty most important statements in the book. . . .Numbers in the margin: to indicate the sequence of points the author makes in developing a single argument.Numbers of other pages in the margin: to indicate where else in the book the author made points relevant to the point marked; to tie up the ideas in a book, which, though they may be separated by many pages, belong together.Circling of keywords or phrases.Writing in the margin, or at the top or bottom of the page, for the sake of: recording questions (and perhaps answers) which a passage raised in your mind; reducing a complicated discussion to a simple statement; recording the sequence of major points right through the book. I use the end -papers at the back of the book to make a personal index of the authors points in the order of their appearance. Izaak Walton on How to Dress a Large Chub (1676)[I]f he be a large Chub, then dress him thus:First scale him, and then wash him clean, and then take out his guts; and to that end make the hole as little and near to his gills as you may conveniently, and especially make clean his throat from the grass and weeds that are usually in it (for if that be not very clean, it will make him to taste very sour); having so done, put some sweet herbs into his belly, and then tie him with two or three splinters to a spit, and roast him, basted often with vinegar, or rather verjuice and butter, with good store of salt mixt with it.Being thus drest, you will find him a much better dish of meat than you, or most folk, even than Anglers themselves do imagine; for this dries up the fluid watery humor with which all Chubs do abound.But take this rule with you, that a Chub newly taken and newly drest, is so much better than a Chub of a days keeping after he is dead, that I can compare him to nothing so f itly as to Cherries newly gathered from a tree, and others that have been bruised and lain a day or two in water. Being thus used and drest presently, and not washt after he is gutted (for note that lying long in water, and washing the blood out of the Fish after they be gutted, abates much of their sweetness), you will find the Chub to be such meat as will recompense your labour.(Izaak Walton, The Compleat Angler, 5th edition, 1676) The Limitations of LanguageThose who think they are testing a boys elementary command of English by asking him to describe in words how one ties ones tie or what a pair of scissors is like, are far astray. For precisely what language can hardly do at all, and never does well, is to inform us about complex physical shapes and movements. . . . Hence we never in real life voluntarily use language for this purpose; we draw a diagram or go through pantomimic gestures.(C.S. Lewis, Studies in Words, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 1967)The Lighter Side of Process Analysis                        How to Make a Swing With No Rope or Board or Nails                       First grow a moustache                        A hundred inches long,                        Then loop it over a hickry limb                        (Make sure the limb is strong).                        Now pull yourself up off the ground                        And wait until the spring                        Then swing!                       (Shel Silverstein, How to Make a Swing With No Rope or Board or Nails. A Light in the Attic.                              HarperCollins, 1981) How to Pack a Suit So It Wont Come Out Wrinkled                        Lay the suit on its back on a flat surface such as a tennis court. Take the sleeves and place                                 them at the side. Take the left sleeve and place it on the suits hip, and hold the right sleeve                                 over the suits head as though the suit is waving in a jaunty manner. Now put both sleeves                                    straight up over the suits head and shout, Touchdown! Ha ha! Isnt this fun? You may feel                                    silly, but trust me, youre not half as silly as the people who think they can fold a suit so it wont                           come out wrinkled.                        (Dave Barry, Dave Barrys Only Travel Guide Youll Ever Need. Ballantine Books, 1991)

Spanish Beach Vocabulary

Spanish Beach Vocabulary Whats your idea of the perfect vacation? For many people, its spending days on the beach, listening to the waves pounding on the sand. And if youre a beach lover, sooner or later youll find yourself where Spanish is spoken. Before you head out, here is some vocabulary you can become acquainted with.  ¡Buen viaje! la arena - sandla bahà ­a - bayel balnerario - spa, resortel baà ±ador - swimsuit, swimming trunksel bikini, el biquini - bikiniel bloque del sol, el bronceador - sunscreen, suntan lotionel buceo, bucear - diving, to diveel bungalow - bungalowel cayo - key (island)el esnorquel, el esnorkel, buceo con tubo de respiracià ³n - snorkelingla isla - islandel lago - lakenadar - to swimel ocà ©ano - oceanla ola - wavela palapa - beachside building with a grass roofla piscina - swimming poolla playa - beachel puerto - portla puesta de sol - sunsetla sombrilla - beach umbrellael surf, hacer surf - surfing, to surfel traje de baà ±o - swimsuitla vista al mar - sea or ocean view Vocabulary Notes Hacer sustantivo: It is fairly common in Spanish when importing words to use the construction hacer followed by a noun for the verb form. For example, Spanish has imported the word surf as the general word for surfing. To make the verb form, use hacer surf, literally to do surfing. Another common use of this construction can be found frequently on Web pages, where haga clic aquà ­ is used for click here. Nadar: This verb is used in a number of idiomatic phrases. One of the colorful ones is nadar y guardar la ropa, literally to swim and keep ones clothing, translated as to have it both ways or to have ones cake and eat it too. Other common phrases are nadar entre dos aguas, to sit on the fence, and nadar contra corriente, to swim against the current. Wave: When speaking of a wave in the ocean or another body of water, the word ola is used. But when speaking of a wave in hair or in the physics sense, the word onda is used. Thus a microwave oven is un horno de microondas. There is no specific verb for to wave as in waving a hand; common phrases are saludar con la mano for a simple wave of the hand or despedirse de alguià ©n con la mano for waving goodbye.

Evaluate change management in Telecommunications sector omantel in Essay

Evaluate change management in Telecommunications sector omantel in Sultanate of Oman - Essay Example For example, a country with many international companies and businesses could be perceived as an economically progressing organization that employs highly technical and skilled employees. This indicates that the country is highly advanced and privatizations of government owned corporations indicate a liberalization of government economic and trade policies. However, not all organizations keep up with the social, economic and political changes in the country, there are those who remain in touch with methods and resist change. But if an organization wants to achieve progress and growth, it must remember that change is inevitable. Change in the organizational structure, management and use of technology indicates that the organization is moving towards better measures of effectiveness and paving its way towards progress and prosperity. â€Å"Change will not disappear nor dissipate; technology, civilizations and creative thoughts will maintain their ever-accelerating dive onwards† (Paton & McCalman 2008, p. 5). As with any process involving transition and transformation, change in the structure and strategies of an organization is often met with negativity and apprehension. Even if the change is for the greater good of the company, there will always be those who will remain anxious about its consequences. Organizational change is brought about by a number of factors; this could be from mergers and acquisitions, a government take-over or the privatization of the organization. The anxiety provoking aspect in any organizational change is not actually the transformation of the organization or the change in management but the fact that the employees have to leave their old ways of doing things; it is the learning of new tasks, new protocols and new operating procedures that threaten employees. By definition, change means discarding the old and embracing the new, and the new may not always be accepted and appreciated by the employees. â€Å"Traditionally, analysis of organizational change has been built around the organism metaphor in which organizations are analyzed as if they were living organisms operating in an environment to which they need to adapt to ensure survival† (Lesson 37: Organizational Change n.d., p. 1). Anxiety and apprehension to some extent is the natural reaction to change, as our body responds to external stimuli both physically and psychologically. This response or reaction to change is welcomed by the agents of change as an opportunity to make the employees aware of the undertakings taking place in the organization. It is the time when questions could be answered, when professional thirsts could be quenched, when fears and doubts could be placated and when employees are engaged as advocates of the process of change as they now possess the knowledge and information that they can share with other employees who face the same challenges. Change Management in an organization is all about the actions necessary for an o rganization to recognize, organize, execute and take

Extended definition about family Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Extended definition about family - Essay Example There are different types of families, and they are in many settings. The functions and meanings of families depend on their connection to other societal institutions. A common family is a nuclear family, which also refers to conjugal families in the North America and Europe. To sociologists, there is a difference between the nuclear family and the conjugal family. According to them, conjugal families are relatively independent of the relatives of parents and of other families, while the nuclear families are the ones, which maintain a quite close relationship with their relatives.Extended family is also another family, which can mean people who are related by blood, and can refer to people who are related, and their relationships extend beyond the domestic group and do not fit into the conjugal family. These families refer to the normative structure, which is found in a society.All societies show some differences in the composition and outset of families. Sociologists, historians, an d anthropologists dedicate themselves to the understanding of variations, and changes in the family that result after some time. There is also another type of family called the bourgeois and is a family structure, which arises out of the sixteenth and seventeenth century from the European households. This family is formed from the marriage between a man and a woman under strictly defined gender roles. In this type of family, father is given the responsibly of looking income, while a woman has to take care of family matters.... This family is formed from the marriage between a man and a woman under strictly defined gender-roles. In this type of family, father is given the responsibly of looking income, while a woman has to take care of family matters. The huge transformation that led to current marriage in Western democracies was due to the religio-cultural value system provided by Judaism, early Christianity, Roman Catholic laws, and the Protestant Reformation. In some societies, there exist families, which are headed by the same sex. Although there is increasingly acceptance of the families headed by the same sex in the western societies, the heterosexual families are still the norm against which the same sex families are compared to. The rules of heterosexual marriage, which has encouraged same-sex partnerships to think critically about familial relationships, egalitarian strategies of family practices, and to invent creative family forms (Haviland, Prins & Walrath 242). There are also families, which ar e called blended families or stepfamily. These are families, which have mixed parents, whereby, one or both parents have remarried, and have children of the previous family in the present family. The affiliate of the couple to whom the child is not naturally linked is the stepparents. If the stepparents legally adopt the partners’ children, they become their legal parents. In this case, they may stop using the terms stepparent. However, some emotional issues that are common to stepfamilies may continue to be a problem. Family members should bond with their stepfamilies as with the biological families. Additionally, there are traditional and non-traditional families. The traditional families are those

History of public administration Essay Example for Free

History of public administration Essay Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketch Summary Historical accounts of African public administration often highlight the colonial setting and usually overlook pre-colonial Africa. The African civil service has its roots in precolonial institutions on which European powers relied to build the colonial state and consolidate their administration. Thus, this chapter analyzes the development of African administration from the pre-colonial era up to the present. The first section discusses the pre-colonial period. The colonial system constitutes the second section. The third section deals with the post-colonial period and discusses some problems associated with African administration. 1. The Pre-Colonial Period: From the Ashes of Pharaohs to the Berlin Conference At the end of the prehistoric period (10 000 BC), some African nomadic bands began to settle more permanently in villages along the Nile River to develop the political foundation of ancient Egypt. As these early farmers increased their mastery over soil and animal life, irrigation became a key development strategy to increase food production, which in turn multiplied their populations. Eventually, different villages came to recognize their common interests, to coordinate their efforts and broaden community linkages. People from different communities joined together through confederation or conquest for purposes of commerce or defense, and developed African  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani empires, kingdoms, and chieftaincies. Two types of systems, hierarchical political systems and horizontal or acephalous societies, developed to help generate stable communities and foster prosperity. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Stateless societies were small political entities and had no bureaucracies as they were mostly based on kinship. Hierarchical societies, however, had bureaucracies to carry out certain functions such as collecting taxes, supervising ceremonies, entertaining dignitaries, and compelling people to do the rulers’ bidding. These polities, which evolved before the arrival of Europeans in Africa, were either centralized or decentralized political entities presided over by emperors, kings, chiefs, or military commanders. The following analysis covers the first hierarchical form of rule that emerged some three millennia BC in ancient Egypt, followed by a brief overview of Medieval Africa. The final sub-section discusses the African administration up to the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885. 1. 1. Ancient Civilization of Africa: The Case of Egypt Around 3300 BC, farming lineages along the Nile Valley joined together as villages to increase production of food and to defend themselves against outsiders. From these villages regional confederations of Upper and Lower Egypt developed. By 3100 BC, a central authority emerged and unified these confederations under the rule of divine pharaohs. From 2700 to 2181, six dynasties succeeded each other to form the Old Kingdom. A century and a half of civil war and provincial rivalries gave rise to the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdoms that ruled Egypt from 2080 to 1640 BC. The Middle Kingdom was replaced by the Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom from 1570 to 1090 BC. Three dynasties (18th through 20th) ruled in the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period began around 1089 BC with the Kushite Kings. The Egyptian empire was multinational consequent to the conquest of foreign nations. The Old and Middle Kingdoms were highly centralized and ruled by â€Å"god-kings† or pharaohs. With its capital at Memphis, the Old Kingdom was divided into provinces. Next to the king was the vizier, the administrative hand of the king, who was also in charge of day to day administrative, fiscal, and judicial matters. Although very few administrative documents have survived, court documents provide a glimpse of the Egyptian bureaucracy. Three basic administrative divisions existed: the Department of the Head of the South, the Office of Government Labor, and the Treasury. The Palermo Stone provides further evidence of administrative structure in the collection of revenue and in the assessment of Egyptian wealth. On the Stone was documented a biennial administrative census that left nothing unaccounted for, so that taxes could be assessed even on the basis of canals, lakes, wells, and trees of an estate. The system consisted of a hierarchical structure with diverse administrative agencies spreading throughout the kingdom for effective management. Another governmental task was the administration of justice, on which was founded the concept of ma‘at (or justice), whereby some high priests bore the title of priest of Ma‘at. In addition to the capital city of Memphis, there were other towns of importance that  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani made up provinces headed by town governors, who were also chief priests in charge of temple revenue in many parts of Ancient Egypt. Provincial temples were the subject of central government regulations to avoid any strong power at the provincial level. However, during the first intermediate period, the office of governor in charge of civil affairs became the office of chief priest. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S The role of bureaucracy in these early kingdoms was to facilitate the transfer of resources from different provinces to the king’s court. If early administrations were in charge of maintaining irrigation and agricultural output, later administrations seemed to be more involved in supervising construction work and wealth transfer. The proliferation of these later types of bureaucracies, at the expense of those that used to maintain the agricultural system, would probably have produced pressures on the agricultural output and might have been the first sign of political decay in Ancient Egypt. The centralized system itself between the king, court officers, and ambitious governors may also have led to the same result. The New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period generated a great mass of documentation about Egyptian political and administrative life. The form of government remained the same, based on divine kingship. The government always stressed the religious function of the political system. Under the auspices of Gods, the government was expected to maintain the integrity of Egyptian territory and expand its frontiers. The most important function of the government was to create civic and individual security, and the vizier carried out the duty of ensuring that law and regulations were obeyed throughout the bureaucracy. The society was divided into hierarchical stratifications with the king at the top, a small group of high-ranking and wealthy officials next, and a much larger group of bureaucrats (scribes), priests, soldiers, stable masters, citizens, cultivators, and herdsmen filling the bottom layer. The Egyptian political system under the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period was divided into an internal government and a government of conquests. Internally, the civil government was run by two viziers (northern and southern), overseer of the granaries of upper and lower Egypt, and the chief taxing master. The two viziers also supervised the overseer of the treasury and lower level officials in charge of bureaucracy, judiciary, and the police. At the lowest level of the administrative hierarchy were the chiefs, town mayors, and councils. The government of conquests had several governors who supervised vassal kings and their battalion commanders. Most of the Northern Lands were small and scattered, and under the direct control of various battalion commanders. The goal of this decentralization scheme was to obstruct anyone from controlling a large estate and challenging the king’s power. The governor of the Southern Lands was the Viceroy of Kush and his role became important internally at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty. He also supervised two deputies and a battalion commander. Military forces were all centralized under one commander. In addition to these administrative entities, there existed a religious government hierarchy, with the â€Å"overseer of prophets† at the top, a position held at various times by a vizier who was the head of two high priests. Below them was the priesthood bureaucracy. The corps of the centralized system was maintained by a small group of powerful officials. They headed each department and reported directly to the king who appointed  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani and removed them. The bureaucracy consisted of a group of educated scribes whose role consisted of collecting taxes, conducting censuses, regulating agriculture, and administering justice and law with a small police force. A professional army was divided into various units, each with its own hierarchy of officers. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Pressures on land and rising inflation may have been politically significant in later days of the New Kingdom, though bureaucratic inefficiency and abuse of power were probably the main causes of economic collapse. Besides the deterioration of administrative integrity, another major cause that weakened the kingship was the changing relationship between the king, civil government, army, and a few powerful families. Some families came to control major economic resources of the state, and the civil service became less susceptible to royal control. In addition, the kings’ tours of their provinces became less frequent, and royal princes and other deputies carried out religious rites formerly performed by the kings. During the ensuing Third Intermediate Period (1069 664 BC), Egypt was in perpetual crisis and the Egyptian civilization disappeared after the Roman conquest around 30 BC. In summary, the evolution of Ancient Egypt is characterized by the rise and fall of large scale governments that reflect alternating periods of unification and fragmentation. 1. 2. Medieval Africa Medieval Africa was different from the Ancient in several respects. First, Medieval leaders attempted to balance local traditions and regional autonomy in response to their peoples needs by developing and consolidating large-scale kingdoms and empires for purposes of trade or defense. A second difference was the impact of Islam on African societies. Muslims believed that one God (Allah) called on them to undertake jihads (commonly known as holy war against non-believers) when necessary. The most renowned of Africas medieval empires of Mali, Songhay and Morocco rose to the highest stages of their international influence with Islam as the imperial religion. Other medieval African kingdoms and empires developed indigenous political ideologies based on regional customs and beliefs, while Coptic Christianity remained the official state religion in the Abyssinian kingdom of medieval Ethiopia. In 969 A. D. , Muslims from the Maghreb conquered Egypt and established the Fatimid Dynasty in Cairo (c. 970-1170 A. D. ), which was highly hierarchical and whose military was highly professionalized. This strict hierarchy of officials, and the controlling powers of the vizier, left room neither for the autonomous tendencies of provincial governors nor for the growth of widespread corruption. Tolerant of other religions, the system let Copts and Jews occupy prestigious positions in the administration. The centralized administration controlled tax revenues, the payment of troops, and the allocation of military fiefs. The Fatimid administration was in charge of regulating and distributing the waters of the Nile River. Dams and canals were regularly repaired and improved; even an occasional period of low water did not greatly damage the general economic situation. When the Fatimid rule in Egypt was threatened by European Christian Crusaders (c. 1170), it was Egypts professional soldiers, or Mamluks (slave-soldier), who rallied behind Saladin to defeat the Crusaders. He then established a new Mamluk Dynasty in  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani Cairo from 1171 to1517. By the thirteenth century, the institution of the slave-soldiers became an integral part of the political and social system in many Muslim countries. The Mamluk oligarchy never accepted in its ranks someone who was not a slave soldier, so that the military establishment not only remained hierarchical, but also continued to be a caste dominated by slave soldiers. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Most Mamluk caliphates were divided into military fiefs centralized under one single Caliph. The basic administrative entity was the village because the Mamluk dynasty obtained most of its revenues from landed estates. A major innovation to ensure payment was that the peasants were prohibited from leaving their villages without permission. In addition to land taxes, the Mamluk caliphates drew their revenues from customs duties, based on ad valorem and the religion of the merchants, so that Christian importers had to pay taxes as high as 30%, whereas Muslim importers paid only 10%. This canonical tax was abolished under the reform of 1316. Several other kingdoms, such as Ghana and Mali, developed in Medieval Western Sudan. But the best known was the Kingdom of Songhay founded around the trading town of Gao (c. 1000 A. D. ). The Songhay Kingdom broke away from Mali and subsequently arose to become the third great empire in the medieval western Sudan (c. 1460-1590). Songhays founding emperor, Sunni Ali, established imperial authority northward into the Sahara in order to control international trade routes and valuable deposits of rock salt (which was mined and cut into large blocks to be traded for gold). Following Ali’s death, one of his generals, Muhammad Toure, overthrew the legitimate heir, and embarked on a hajj to Mecca. In 1496 he returned to wage jihad against nonMuslims. He conquered new territories and ruled over Songhays expanded empire as Caliph of West Africa. Under Muhammads authority (1493-1528), Songhay, especially the towns of Timbuktu and Jenne, rose to become one of the medieval worlds largest multinational empires. The administrative system was open enough to provide lower level citizens some type of upward social mobility. The empire was highly decentralized and Islam was used as a tool to assimilate different communities. Different categories of slaves cultivated fields, constructed adobe buildings and mosques, acted as porters, or served as soldiers and officials in the imperial government. Some of the latter rose through government and military bureaucracies by virtue of meritorious work to achieve high positions of administrative responsibility, as did soldier Muhammad Toure, when he rose by military merit to become a general and then became the emperor of Songhay. As emperor of Songhay, Muhammad established effective central supervision over provincial governors. He also reformed Songhays imperial government so that merit (rather than birth) became the principal criterion for advancement in bureaucracy. Eventually, after Muhammad became blind and was deposed in 1528, Songhays trans-Saharan trade declined. This was also partly due to competition from European sea traders along the West African Atlantic coast, which undercut the trans-Saharan gold trade. After severe political crises of succession disputes, rebellions and civil war that Songhay emperors faced during the 1580s, their imperial army was decisively defeated by Moroccos elite musketeers at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591. Other kingdoms and chieftaincies came up throughout Central, Eastern and Southern  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani Africa. Although some of these polities were decentralized or confederated, most of them developed as centralized systems where the king or the chief represented the top, followed by the house of the king or an inner circle of advisors, and finally the Council of Elders as the legislative branch. The army and bureaucrats were in charge of maintaining security and law, collecting taxes, and conducting censuses. In most polities, age was a major social feature of stratification, while in other areas the system was meritocractic. 1. 3. Beyond the Medieval Era to the Nineteenth Century U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S In the late 1500s and through the 1700s, Europeans and Arabs introduced new weapons and made new demands for captives of war throughout Africa to meet the demands of a growing international slave trade. Consequently, many of Africa’s previous patterns of political and economic growth were disrupted, even though many of the great traditions of medieval African politics and administration continued to guide their evolution. As African kingdoms and empires continued to develop, and trade between coastal cities and interior regions expanded throughout the continent, various African peoples established political confederations based on religious ideology, commercial linkages and/or military authority. Such confederations were committed to establishing broader nationalist ideologies, promoting literacy and advancement by merit, expanding both regional and international commerce, and undertaking significant administrative and military reforms. The first great reformer and leader in North Africa was an Ottoman military commander, Muhammad Ali (1805-1848). He established the first secular schools, engineering and medical colleges, modern factories, modern printing presses, and stateowned textile and munitions factories. His successors continued his policies of borrowing foreign capital and building projects, such as the Suez Canal that was completed in 1869. In the west, the original Asante confederation, established by seven clans near the city of Kumasi (in modern day Ghana), united around the symbolic Golden Stool of their ruler Asante-Hene. This confederation built roads and promoted agriculture, commerce, industry and education through self-help and self-reliance. The Asante emperors implemented several modernization policies in administration that included promoting advancement by merit and the development of state enterprise through public investment. By 1874, the British imperial army defeated the Asante army and annexed the Fante territories into their Gold Coast colony. In East Africa (c. 1800-1885), there was also a movement toward centralization of authority and broadened commercial linkages throughout the region, from Ethiopia’s Highlands to the Limpopo River in Southern Africa. In the first half of the nineteenth century, however, Africa continued to be significantly disrupted by international trade in slaves, even as new Euro-American markets began to demand large imports of such African-based commodities as palm oil, cotton, peanuts, and ivory. By mid-century, European merchants realized that Africans could produce such valuable exports more efficiently and humanely by working in their own countries than by working as slaves in the Americas. Many other nineteenth century African nations were consciously modernizing their various political economies and shifting to regional confederacies,

Comparing Relationship between Teller and Tale in The Merchant’s Tale a

Relationship between Teller and Tale in The Merchant’s Tale and The Wife of Bathe A relationship is usually seen between the teller of a tale and the tale that he or she decides to share. Chaucer’s pilgrim, the Merchant, uses his feelings on marriage to teach a lesson in his tale. The Wife of Bathe also relies on her life experience to tell her tale. The two relationships in the tales can then be compared. In his prologue, the Merchant recounts how he despises being married. He has only been married for two months and he regrets the decision he made because his wife is the worst of all. He takes these negative views of marriage into his tale. The old man that gets to receive the Merchant’s feelings towards marriage is January. January is happy in his marriage, quite the opposite from the Merchant, yet his wife fools him. The Merchant is blinded by the beauty and vivacity of his young wife, May. He is in love enough with her that he does not immediately understand the affair that is happening behind his back. Even when he catches sight of Da...

The Experiment Research Study: Craik and Tulving (1975)

Aim: To investigate depth processing by giving participants s number of tasks requiring different levels of processing and measuring recognition.Participants: Controlled condition (3 males and 3 females) Experimental condition (3 males and 3 females) Independent group designMethod: This was a repeated measures design experiment with three conditions. Participants were given a list of 60 words, one at a time and were required to process each word at one of thee levels (the independent variable). At deep level they might be asked a question, such as ‘Does this word fit into the sentence†¦?' At an intermediate level, they might be asked ‘ Does this word rhyme with†¦?' At shallow level, they might be asked, ‘Is this word in capital letters?'Following the task, participants were (unexpectedly) given a list of 180 words, which contained the original 60 words processed and 120 ‘filler' words, and were asked to identify the ones they recognised from the orig inal 60 (the dependent variable).Measurement: The two conditions create room for accurate comparison and results. Participants are referred to with numbers.Results: Significantly more words were recognised if they had been processed at deep level (approximately 65 per cent) than either phonetic (37 per cent) or shallow (17 per cent) levels.Conclusion: As deeper processing resulted in better recognition, then the level at which material is processed must be related to memory.Evaluation: This study relies on incidental learning (the participants did  not know they would be asked to recall the words), rather than intentional learning, which is the advantage of being more true to real life. This means participants are unlikely to engage in extra processing which could invalidate the results. However, there is a necessary level of deception required in suck a design which raised ethical issues.